Nobel Prize - 2003

Noble Prizes founded by inventor of dynamite, Alfred Noble, a Swedish industrialist, are given every year to chosen as the best scholars in six categories from entire world.

For year 2003, these awards are given to Alexei A. Abrikosov (Russia America) Vitaly L.Ginzburg (Russia) and Anthony J.Leggett (America- England) for Physics; Peter Agre and Roderick Mackinnon (America) for chemistry; Sir Peter Mansfield (England) and Paul C. Lauterbur (America ) for Medicine; John Maxwell Coetzee (South Africa) for Literature; Robert F. Engle (America) and Clive W.J. Granger (England) for Economics as well as Shirin Ebadi of Iran for Peace.

Physics:

The Royal Sedish Academy of Sciences cited Alexei A Abrikosov, 75, AnthonyJ.Leggett, 65, and Vitaly L.Ginzburg, 87, for their work concerning two phenomena studied under Quantum Physics, called super-conductivity and super fluidity. Abrikosov is based at the Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois; Ginzburg is based at the P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow; and


Leggett is based at the University of Illinois. The $1.3 million prize money will be shared equally among the three winners.

Alexei A. Abrikosov and Vitaly L.Ginzburg have developed theories for superconductivity and Anthony Leggett has explained one type of super fluidity. Both super conductivity and super fluidity occur at very low temperatures.

When investigation were first carried out into the nature of electricity, it was evident that metals and certain alloys conduct electricity by allowing electrons to move between the atoms. In addition it was found that an electric current through a conductor creates a magnetic field, which in turn generates current in the opposite direction. In 1911, the Dutch Physicist Heike Kammerlingh Onnes made a remarkable discovery. He was particularly interested in the properties of substances at low temperatures and had succeeded in producing liquid helium, which has an extremely low temperature. When Onnes investigated the electric conductivity of mercury, he found that when the metal was cooled by means of liquid helium to a few degrees above absolute zero, its electric resistance vanished. He named this phenomenon super conductivity. Almost 50 years passed before the Physicist John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer (Noble prize in Physics, 1972) was able to present a theory called BCS theory that explained the phenomenon. This theory shows that some of the negatively-charged electrons in a super conductor from pairs, called Cooper pairs. These pairs of electrons flow along attracting channels formed by the regular structure of the positively charged metal atoms in the material. As a result of this combination and interaction the current can flow evenly and super conductivity occurs. These super conductors are called type -1 and are metals characterized by the Meissner Effect.

But it is known that there are super conductors that lack of show only a partial Meissner Effect. These are in general alloys of various metals or compounds consisting of non- metals and copper. These retain their super conductive property even in a strong magnetic field and are called type-II super conductors.

Alexei A. Abrikosov succeeded in formulation a new theory to describe the phenomenon. His starting point was a description of super conductivity in which the density of the super conductive condensate is taken into account with the aid of an order parameter i.e. a wave function. Abrikosov was able to show mathematically how the order parameter can describe vortices and how the external magnetic field can penetrate the material along the channels in these vortices.

Abrikosov was also able to predict in detail how the number of vortices can grow as the magnetic field increases in strengths in the superconductors that were known at that time. Ginzburg and Landau realized that an order parameter describing the density of the super conductive condensate in the material had to be introduced if the intaraction between the super conductor and magnetism was to be explained. When this parameter was introduced, it was evident that there was a breakpoint when a characteristic value, approximately 0.71 was reached and that in principle there were two types of superconductors. For mercury the value is approximately 0.16 and other superconductors known at the time have values close to this. There was therefore, at that time, no reason no consider values above the breakpoint. Abrikosov was able to the tie up the theory by showing that type II super conductors had precisely these values.

The lightest rare gas, helium, exists in nature in two forms, two isotopes-4He and 3He. If helium gas is cooled to low temperatures, approximately 4 degree above absolute zero (-273.150 C), the gas passes into liquid form, it condenses.

If liquid helium is cooled to even lower temperatures, dramatic differences arise between the liquids of the two isotopes; quantum physical effects appear that cause the liquids to lose all their resistance to internal movement, they become super fluids. This occurs at quite different temperatures for the two super fluids and they exhibit a wide range of fascinating properties, such as flowing freely from openings in the vessel they are kept in.

The act that 4He becomes super fluid was discovered by pyotr Kapitsa, among others, already in the time late 1930s. The transformation from normal to super conducting liquid occurs at approximately 2 degrees above absolute zero for 4 He.

For the 3He isotope the transformation into the super fluid state was not discovered until the early 1970s by David Lee, Douglas Osheroff and Robert Richardson (Noble Laureates in Physics in 1996). Even though 3He differs in quantum physical respects from 4He and can not directly undergo Bose-Einstein condensation, this discovery was not unexpected. Thanks to the micro-scopic theory of super conductivity presented in the 1950s by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer, there was a mechanism, the formation of Cooper pairs, that ought to have been paralleled in 3H.

The theoretician who first succeeded in explaining the properties of the new super-fluid in a decisive way was Anthony Leggett, who in the 1970s was working at the University of Sussex in England. His theory helped experimentalists to interpret their results and provided a framework for a systematic explanation. Leggett's theory, which was first formulated for super fluidity in 3He, has also proved useful in other fields of Physics e.g. particle physics and cosmology.

As super fluid, 3He consists of Pairs of atoms, its property are much more complicated than those of the 4He super fluid. In particulars the pairs of atoms of the super fluid have magnetic properties, which means that the liquid is an isotropic, it has different properties in different direction. This fact was used in experiments in which studies were made of the liquid immediately after its discovery. By means of magnetic measurements it was revealed that the super fluid has very complex properties, exhibiting a mixture of three different phases. These three phases have different properties and the properties in the mixture are dependent on temperature, pressure and external magnetic fields.

Super fluid 3He is a tool that researchers can use in the laboratory to study other phenomena as well. In particular the formation of turbulence in the super fluid has recently been used to study how order can turn into chaos.

This research may lead to a better understanding of the ways in which turbulence arises- one of the last unsolved problems of classical physics.

Chemistry:

Peter Agre and Roderick Mackinon of America won the Noble prize in Chemistry for their research on how key materials

enter or leave the cells in the body. The pair received the award for their discoveries concerning tiny pores called 'channels' on the surface of cells. Prof. Agre (54) is part of the staff at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland, and Prof. Mackinon (47) is part of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute of the Rockefeller University in New York. Prof. Agre was cited for his work in 1988 for isolating a membrane protein that, a year or so later, he realized must be the long sought after water channel.


These discoveries are of fundamental importance for the understanding of life processes, not just among humans and higher organisms, but also for bacteria and plants. The discovery opened the door to a whole series of bio-chemical, physiological and genetic studies of water channels in bacteria, plants and mammals.

To maintain even pressure in the cells it is important that water can pass through the cell wall. Around 1990 Peter Agre discovered the first water channel. Like so much else in the living cell, it was all about a protein. Water molecules are not the only entities that pass into and out of the cell. The signals sent in and between cells consists of ions or small molecules. These start cascades of chemical reactions that cause our muscles to tense, our eyes to water indeed, that control all our bodily functions. The signals in our brains also involve such chemical reactions. It was in 1998 that Roderick Mackinon succeeded for the first time in showing what ion channels look like at atomic level, an achievement which, together with Agre's discovery of water channels, opened up entirely new research areas in biochemistry and biology.

The medical consequences of Agre's and Mackinon's discoveries are also important. A number of diseases can be attributed to poor functioning in the water and ion channels of the human body. With the help of fundamental knowledge of what they look like and how they work, there are now new possibilities for developing new and more effective pharmaceuticals.

As early as the middle of the nineteenth century it was understood that there must be openings in the cell membrane to permit a flow of water and salts. In the middle of the 1950s it was discovered that water can be rapidly transported into and out of cells through pores that admit water molecules only. During the next 30 years this was studied in detail and the conclusion was that there must be some type of selective filter that prevents ions from passing through the membrane while water molecules, which are uncharged, flow freely. Thousands of millions of water molecules per second pass through one single channel.

Although this was known, it was not until 1992 that anybody was able to identify what this molecules machinery really looked like; that is, to identify what protein to proteins formed the actual channel. In the mid 1980s Peter Agre studied various membrane proteins from the red blood cells. He also found one of these in the kidney. Having determined both its peptide sequence and the corresponding DNA sequence, he realized that this must be the protein that so many had sought before him; The cellular water channel.

The liquid pressure in plant and animal cells is maintained through osmosis. The osmosis pressure in turn is the reason why cells are often swollen and stiff, in a flower stalk, for example.

Peter Agre also knew that mercury ions prevent cells from taking up and releasing water, and he showed that water transport through his new protein was prevented in the same way by mercury. This made him even more sure of that he had discovered what was actually the water channel. Agre named the protein aqua Orin,"Water Pore".

In 2002, together with other research teams, Agre reported the first high-resolution images of the 3D structure of the aqua orin with these data, it was possible to map in detail how a water channel functions. How is it that it only admits water molecules and not other molecules or ions? The membrane is, for instance, not allowed to leak proton concentration between the inside and the outside of the cell is the basis of the cellular energy-storage system.

The cells signal with salt! The first physical chemist, the German Wilhelm Ostwald (Noble Prize in Chemistry 1909) proposed in 1890 that the electrical signals measured in living tissue could be caused by ions moving in and out through cell membranes. The notion of the existence of some type of narrow ion channel arose in the 1920s. During the 1970s it was shown that the ion channels were able to admit only certain ions because they were equipped with some kind of " ion filter". Of particular interest was the finding of channels that admit potassium ions but not sodium ions even though the sodium ion is smaller than the potassium ion. It was suspected that the oxygen atoms in the protein played an important role as "substitutes" for the water molecules with which the potassium ion surrounds itself in the water solution and from which it must free itself during entry to the channel.

But further progress with this hypothesis was difficult. The problem was that is extremely difficult to determine the structure of membrane proteins with this method, and the ion channels were no exception. Membrane proteins from plants and animals are more complicated and difficult to work with than those from bacteria. Using bacterial channel proteins that resemble human ion channels as closely as possible might perhaps offer a way forwards.

Many researchers tried in vain. The breakthrough came from an unexpected direction. Roderick Mackinon, after studying biochemistry, turn to medicine and qualified as medical doctor. First ion channel was mapped atom by atom. In 1988 Mackinon determined the first high- resolution structure of an ion channel, called KcsA, from the bacterium Streptomyces lividans. Mackinon revealed for the first time how an ion channel functions at atomic level. The ion filter, which admits potassium ions and potassium ions could now be studied in detail. Not only was it possible to unravel how the ions passed through the channel, they could also be seen in the crystal structure surrounded by water molecules just before they enter the ion filter; right in the filter, and when they meet the water on the other side of the filter.

Mackinon could explain why potassium ions but not sodium ions are admitted through the filter, namely because the distance between the potassium ion and the oxygen atoms in the filter is the same as that between the potassium ion and the oxygen atoms in the water molecules surrounding the potassium ion when it is outside the filter. Thus it can slide through the filter unopposed. However, the sodium ion, which is smaller than the potassium ion, can not pass through the channel. This is because it does not fit between the oxygen atoms in the filter and therefore remains in the water solution. The ability of the channel to strip the potassium ion of its water and allow it to pass at no cost in energy is a kind of selective catalyzed ion transport.

The cell also must be able to control the opening and closing of ion channel. Mackinon has shown that this is achieved by a gate at the bottom of the channel which opened and closed a molecular "sensor". This sensor is situated close to the gate. Certain sensors react to certain signals, e.g. an increase in the concentration of calcium ions, an electric voltage over the cell membrane or bindings of a signal molecule of some kind. By connecting different sensors to ion channels, nature has created channels that respond to a large number of different signals.

Medicine:

Imaging of human internal organs with exact and non-invasive methods is important for medical diagnosis. This year's Noble Laureates in Medicine have made seminal discoveries concerning the use of magnetic resonance to visualize different structures, These discoveries have led to the development of modern Magnetic Resonance Imaging. MRI is now a routine method within medical diagnostics. It is often superior to other imaging techniques and has improved diagnostics in many diseases.

This year's prize is awarded for crucial achievement in the development of application of medical importance. In the beginning of 1970s the laureates made seminal discoveries concerning the development of the technique to view different structures. These findings provided the basis for the development of magnetic resonance into a useful imaging method.

Paul Lauteebur discovered the possibility to create a 2D picture by introducing gradients in the magnetic field. By analysis of the characteristics of the emitted radio waves, he could determine their origin. This made it possible to build up 2D pictures of structure that could not be visualized with other methods. Peter Mansfield showed how the signals could be mathematically analyzed, which made it possible to develop a useful imaging technique. Mansfield also showed how extremely fast imaging could be achievable.

Water constitutes about 2/3 of the human body weight, and this explains why magnetic resonance imaging has become widely applicable to medicine. There are differences in water content among tissues and organs. In many diseases, the pathological process results in changes of the water content, and this is reflected in the MR image.

Water is a molecule composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The nuclei of the hydrogen atom are able to act as microscopic compass needles. When the body is exposed to a strong magnetic field, the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms are directed into order stand "at attention". When submitted to pulses of radio wave, the energy content of the nuclei changes. After the pulse, a resonance wave is emitted when the nuclei return to their previous state.

The small differences in the oscillations of the nuclei are detected. By advanced computer processing. It is possible to build up a 3D image that reflects the chemical structure of the tissue, including difference in the water content and in movements of the water molecules. This results in a very detailed image of tissues and organs in the investigated area of the body. In this manner, pathological changes can be documented.

The resonance phenomenon is governed by a simple relation between strength of the magnetic field and frequency of the radio waves. For every type of atomic nucleus with unpaired protons and / or neutrons, there is a mathematical constant by which it is possible to determine the wavelength as a function of strength of the magnetic field.

A great advantage with MRI is that it is harmless according to all present knowledge. The method does not use ionising radiation. However, patients with magnetic metal in the body or a pacemaker can not be examined with MRI due to the strong magnetic field, and patients with claustrophobia may have difficulties undergoing MRI.

MRI is used to examined to all body organs. The technique is valuable for detailed imaging of the brain and spinal cord. Nearly all brain disorders lead to alterations in water content, which are reflected in the MRI picture. A difference in water content of less than a percent is enough to detect a pathological change.

In multiple sclerosis, examination with MRI is superior for diagnosis and follow up. The symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis are caused by local inflammation in the brain and the spinal cord. With MRI it is possible to see where in the nervous system the inflammation is localized, how intense it is, and also how it is influenced by treatment.

Another example is prolonged lower back pain, leading to great suffering for the patient. It is important to be able to differentiate between muscle pain and pain caused by pressure on a nerve or spinal cord. MRI examinations have been able to replace previous methods which were unpleasant. With MRI, it is possible to see if a disc herniation is pressing on a nerve and to determine if an operation is necessary.

Literature:

South African writer John Mexwell Coetzee won the 2003 Noble literature prize. Coetzee who in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider, will take home the prize sum of 1.3 million dollars. Coetzee's novels, which include Disgrace, Waiting for the Barbarians Bayhood, Life and Times of Michael K, Rumours of Rain, Youth and In the Heart of the Country, are characterized by well- crafted composition, pregnant dialogue and analytical brilliance. His latest work, Elizabeth Costello: Eight Lessons, published this year, is a mixture of essay and fiction.

Coetzee was born in 1940 in Cape Town . His background is both German and English. In 2002, he moved to Australia, where he is attached to the University of Adel Tide. He has got Booker prize twice in years 1983 and 1999.

Economics:

Robert F. Engle of the United States of America and Clive W.J. Granger of Britain won the 2003, Noble Economics Prize for their work in analyzing economic time series.

Peace:

Iranian Human Right Activist and feminist lawyer, Shirin Ebadi, is awarded the 2003, Noble Peace Prize in Oslo becoming the first Muslim woman to win the honour in the prize's 102- year history. Ebadi, 56, was given the prize for her efforts for democracy and human rights, particularly for women and children in her country. In 1974, she became Iran's first woman judge, but lost that post in revolution five years later when Islamic clerics took over and decreed that woman could not preside over courts.

Some important facts about Nobel Prizes

The Noble Prizes for Medicine, Chemistry, Physics, Economics, Literature and Peace awarded in Stockholm and Oslo, are world -famous accolades. But few people know about their mishap-ridden history.

The prizes originate in the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Noble and have been awarded since 1901, except for a few years around World War-I and World War-II.
Noble, born in 1833, is also famous for his invention of dynamite. But it is less well known that his younger brother Emil and four other people died in 1864 when a laboratory blew up during an experiment with the explosive.
More than a tenth of the capital of the Noble Foundation, which writers a check now worth 10 million crowns for each prize, originated in an oil discovery made by Alfred Noble's older brother Robert in Azerbaijan in 1873.
The Noble brother's Oil producing company was established in 1879 and became the largest oil producer in the region with an output of more than 30 million barrels per year by1913.
The first Noble prizes in 1901 were worth 150,000 Swedish crowns each.
This year's prizes are worth two thirds more in dollar terms than the centenary Nobles in 2001due to the combined impact of an increase in the nominal value of the prizes and dollar's steep fall.
Noble laureates and their companies-- this year each winner can bring 16 friends or relatives -- stay at grand Hotel on the waterfront in downtown Stockholm . Concierge Leif Hjorter says the atmosphere is usually friendly but excited.
For some people it is the biggest event in their lives. It has happened that prize winners have been so nervous that they have left the hotel without their wives when going to the ceremony
Noble prizes come with medals engraved with the laureate's name. In 1975 the economics prize winners medals got mixed up, and Russian Lionid Kantorovich and American Tjalling Koopmans got each others medals.
It took four years of delicate Cold War diplomacy to rectify the mishap. Nxumalo Street in Soweto, South Africa, is the only street in the world to be home to two noble peace prize winners. President Nelson Mandela, who won in 1993, and Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the 1984 winner, both have houses there.
American John Bardeen is the only person to have won the Noble physics prize twice. He shared it in 1956 for work on semiconductors and the discovery of the transistor effect, and again in 1972 for developing the theory of superconductivity .
Marie Curie of France also won two Noble prizes, for physics in 1903 for chemistry in 1911. Curie, who discovered radium , died of leukemia as a result of over-exposure to radioactivity. Dublin is the only city in the world to have produced three Noble prize laureates for literature. William Butter Yeats, who won in 1923 , George Bernard Shaw (1925) and Samuel Beckett (1969) were all Dubliners.
Noble Prize were become instantly famous and are swamped by invitations to give speeches and lectures. According to Stanford University in the United States, laureates average100,000 air miles per year.
Americans have won more than a third of all Noble chemistry prizes, half the physics and medicine prizes and three quarters of all economics prizes.
The economics prize is not in Alfred Noble's will but was founded by the Bank of Sweden in 1968 and awarded for the first time in 1969.


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